The Oresteia: A Celebration of Moving from Barbarism to Civilization

A Paper by M. Rinn

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Entertainment in ancient Greece acted as a form of social commentary. Some plays acted as a form of critiquing society, such as in Heracles which questions the definition of a hero. Other plays, like the three plays that make up The Oresteia, comment on the evolution of the city-state and its justice system, moving from a state of perpetual bloodshed into that of a civilized justice system where there is civic law. There is no admonishment of civilization to be found in the plays. Instead, the trilogy is a celebration of mankind’s move from barbarism to civilization, culminated in the figure of Orestes as his ordeal creates the first form of civic justice. The figures of Apollo, the Furies and Athena are key to this move, each representing a key part to the founding of a civilized society.

The first play in the Oresteia, Agamemnon, symbolizes the barbaric society. Natural order is out of line in Argos for many reasons. Clytemnestra rules in place of Agamemnon, taking on a male’s role and acting extremely masculine in manner. In addition, there has been the sacrifice of Iphigenia by her own father, Agamemnon, in order to appease the goddess Artemis. This act angered Clytemnestra, causing her to plot her husband’s murder. Here, gods are already involved in the dysfunctional House of Atreus. It was Artemis who demanded the sacrifice of Iphigenia, as an act of apology for killing one of Artemis’ sacred deer and to ensure passage of his ships to Troy. The figure of Artemis represents the divine justice of the gods, but also shows an indifference towards mortal familial relations. In addition to Artemis, the only other divine figures in Agamemnon are the furies, who are attracted to the house because of the constant family murders within. They are invoked constantly in the play, particularly by the chorus when they explain how Iphigenia’s sacrifice came to be and how terrible of an act it was. But it isn’t until the figure of Cassandra arrives, and begins to predict the bloodshed that is soon to come, that the Furies come into play. She sees them sitting on the roof of the house, seemingly in anticipation, saying that “They cling to the house for life.” (Agamemnon,150, l. 1195). Fagles adds that “The Furies revel, passing through the house, becomes… permanent” (Fagles, The Serpent and the Eagle, 37). The permanence of the Furies demonstrates the amount of kin bloodshed that occurs within the House of Atreus, when there is no civic justice system. Committing an act of murder on a family member means that another person of the family must kill whoever committed the initial murder, and a vicious cycle of unending violence is created. The Furies symbolize the results, and their brand of justice is continued on in the play as Clytemnestra murders her husband, Agamemnon, in an act of revenge for their daughter’s murder. Clytemnestra’s remark that “Here is Agamemnon, my husband made a corpse | by this right hand – a masterpiece of Justice” (Agamemnon, 162, l.1429-1430) demonstrates how dark and barbaric this form of justice is. There is no form of a trial, or a chance for others to hear the case out and try to form a just punishment. Rather, the just thing to do was to kill him because he killed another. The Furies do not take issue with the murder of Agamemnon though, as technically he and Clytemnestra are not blood related, demonstrating the fickleness of this form of justice, as well as an inequality of crimes. While Agamemnon slew a direct blood relative, Clytemnestra did not, and she is free to go. This differentiation demonstrates why the law system that the furies represent is ineffective, and only encourages bloodshed and death.

The Libation Bearers comes next in the trilogy and marks a turning point from barbarism to civilization with the help of the god Apollo. Orestes returns to Argos on Apollo’s command, only to find out what has happened in his family. In the Odyssey, Fagles describes his actions of revenge as “completely successful and completely in the right” whereas in The Oresteia he “he is right and wrong, his father’s avenger and a guilty matricide” (Fagles, The Serpent and the Eagle, 53). The fact that Orestes shows hesitation in being his father’s avenger already hints as a move out of the barbaric justice of the past. He understands that murder in any case is wrong, especially when it is his mother that he has to kill. But on the other hand, custom dictates that since she killed King Agamemnon, vengeance by another kinsman must be taken upon Clytemnestra. The vengeance is urged on by the figure of Apollo, who commands Orestes to return to Argos in the first place through the oracle at Delphi. If Orestes does not comply, he will have to “pay [the] debt | with [his] own life, one long career of grief” (Libation Bearers, 191, 280-281). The options are not pleasant, and they cement Apollo as Orestes’ “patron and tormenter” (Fagles, The Serpent and the Eagle, 56). In this aspect, Apollo is truly terrifying, threatening Orestes with guilt, political exile and eventual and most likely painful death if Orestes does not comply. Orestes listens to the god and kills his mother in order to avenge his father’s murder. He does waver, but the reminder that Apollo is threatening him with far worse consequences prompts his friend Pylades to say “Make all mankind your enemy, not the Gods” (Libation Bearers, 217, 888). Apollo’s involvement in this turning point initially seems that he is encouraging the barbaric justice of the Furies, who follow Orestes after his mother’s murder. It isn’t until the third play, The Eumenidies, does his involvement with the house of Atreus become a turning point for the justice system.

The figures of Apollo, the Furies and Athena come together in The Eumenidies to create civic justice, one of the keystones of civilization. Orestes flees from his home of Argos, pursued by the Furies. He takes sanctuary at the temple of Apollo at Delphi in an attempt to escape them, but not even Apollo himself can implore them to go away. Orestes committed matricide, and that is an unforgivable offence. In an attempt to shield Orestes from the wrath of the Furies, albeit temporarily, Apollo places Orestes under the protection of Hermes, so that Orestes may be lead “back to the world of men with all good speed” (The Eumenidies, 234, 96). In addition he also manages to delay the Furies, who are placed under a deep sleep as Orestes travels from Delphi to Athens. When they wake, after being prodded by the ghost of Clytemnestra, their words give insight into how old and uncivilized their brand of justice is. Not only do they remember that they must torment Orestes, but now because of Apollo’s attempt to delay them, they threaten the god himself, saying that his throne is “streaming blood” (The Eumenidies, 238, l.165) and that they will plunge the prophet of Apollo “under the earth” (The Eumenidies, 238, l.173). Threatening the sacred oracle demonstrates the amount of power that the Furies hold, but also how they perceive justice. Anyone who helps a murderer avoid justice is equally culpable in the act, and deserves to suffer the same terrible fate as the murderer.

The two views of justice come to a head at the trial of Orestes. Both the Furies and Apollo go to Athens and ask Athena for a final judgement on the matter of Orestes’ matricide. The conclusion that Athena should be involved with making the final decision of Orestes’ fate is tied to her function as a goddess of wisdom as well as being the prototypical weaver. By having her make the decision, she is weaving together two different threads to make a whole, creating a strong positive statement about the civic justice system. In addition, the use of Athena in this role demonstrates her acting as Athena Polias, showing her as “the giver of justice administered by the Athenian justice system” (Miklason 80.) Throughout the proceedings she is shown to be fair and willing to listen to both sides as they present their arguments, making her the ideal judge.

Both sides make their views on justice very, very clear in the argument. The Furies speak first, acting on the behalf of the deceased Clytemnestra. They explain what has happened – that Orestes has murdered his mother and that he must be killed because of it. His refusal to take the traditional oath of innocence, they feel, cements their case and that there is no other course of action. Their view is highly dogmatic, rooted in ancient tradition. It is a brutal form of justice, to be sure, and a form that can perpetuate more of the same, but it also venerable because of its age. They continue to insist, prompting Athena to say, “Two sides are here, only half are heard” (The Eumenidies, 250, l. 440.) The Furies give her their trust to make a fair judgement, and she turns over to Apollo and Orestes to hear their side of the story. This fairness and willingness to compromise on behalf of the Furies demonstrates a shift in their own perception of justice, as well as how important Athena is to all of the proceedings. Having the trust to make a fair judgement in such a case is remarkable, and very important to the creation of a more civilized society.

When it is the defence’s turn to speak, Orestes is very willing to submit to Athena’s verdict, whatever the outcome may be. Athena then decides that she cannot judge the matter on her own, and instead calls for a jury of ten peers to decide the case, creating the first civic court. When Apollo speaks during the trial, he shows his own view of justice, as well as his emphasis on what is more important. He represents a hyper masculine world view where the state is more important than anything else, contrasting with the Furies’ view where women and the family are at the centre of the world. By his own judgement, it is Clytemnestra that should have been pursued by the Furies rather than Orestes. This provokes an argument with the vengeance spirits during the trial which leads Apollo to claim, “The woman you call the mother of the child | is not the parent, just a nurse to the seed” (The Eumenidies, 260, l. 666-667).

The play concludes with the verdict of Orestes’ fate. Athena allows him to be acquitted from the crime of murdering his mother. While Orestes is grateful, the Furies are most displeased and rail against the judgement, despite having put their trust in Athena earlier. Athena attempts to placate them by promising that they will be revered in Athens and at the centre of the city, saying that if they choose to stay in Athens, no family will be able to thrive without them. The Furies then become the Kindly Ones and take a place of honour in Athens. Their assimilation into Athenian society demonstrates the old traditions and beliefs in justice that the Furies represented are still at the heart of civic law. In that instance, the barbaric and untamed has become the civilized, emphasising the power of justice, as well as the gods and their ability to tame what seems uncivilized.

The journey from savagery to civilization in the Oresteia demonstrates a praise of civic justice and shows how important the gods are to creating that transition. Where bloodshed and perpetuation of violence are the mark of savage justice symbolized by the Furies, civilization is defined by a trust in the state and an equal view of all things in the form of Athena and her creation of the civic court. Without her interference in the story there would only be a perpetuation of violence, demonstrating how integral the gods were for the creation of a civilized society.